Mexican-American family historians and researchers often inquire with history departments about “Mexican Repatriation” records, particularly concerning individuals who departed the U.S. during the Great Depression (1929-1939). Many believe a large-scale, federally controlled Mexican repatriation program was managed by the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) during this era. Consequently, they anticipate finding documentation of their ancestors’ departures within USCIS records.
In most instances, however, federal records of these departures are scarce. While estimates suggest that 400,000 to 1 million people of Mexican descent, including Mexican-Americans, left the U.S. for Mexico during the Depression, formal INS-directed deportation proceedings accounted for a minority of these departures. The vast majority returned to Mexico either by personal choice or through “voluntary” repatriation programs orchestrated by state and local governments and charitable organizations, often under duress.
Although the INS did intensify deportation efforts in the 1930s and collaborated with local governments seeking to remove Mexican populations, attributing a massive, INS-led repatriation program to this period simplifies a more intricate reality. The INS’s role in these removals was multifaceted.
The Economic Hardship and Rising Anti-Mexican Sentiment
As the Great Depression deepened in 1930, Mexicans and other foreign-born individuals became targets of resentment, accused of occupying jobs needed by U.S. citizens. Simultaneously, local relief agencies faced immense pressure as resources dwindled while the needy population grew. This led many agencies to consider excluding foreign-born applicants from aid, and some local governments and agencies began demanding proof of legal residency for aid eligibility. The threat of deportation under federal immigration law – which allowed for the deportation of immigrants who became “public charges” – was also utilized to deter aid applications. These factors significantly contributed to Mexicans contemplating a return to their native country.
Voluntary Departures and the Shadow of Deportation
Some Mexicans choosing repatriation received assistance from Mexican consulates in the U.S. or financial aid for travel from various organizations. Many others undertook the journey to the southern border independently. Crucially, the threat of federal deportation, frequently wielded by local law enforcement, played a significant role in immigrants’ decisions to leave, even when formal INS deportation proceedings were not initiated.
These “voluntary” repatriations, where the INS’s involvement was indirect, constituted a significant portion of Mexican departures during the Depression. In 1931, the INS acknowledged the “large proportions” of Mexicans returning to Mexico, though without providing concrete figures. Historical analysis suggests that approximately 200,000 Mexicans left the U.S. between November 1929 and December 1931 alone. Consequently, INS records for these non-federally mandated departures are not typically expected to exist.
Mexicans returning to Mexico under these circumstances were classified as “voluntary” repatriates. Despite facing considerable pressure and sometimes explicit threats from local authorities, their return to Mexico occurred outside the framework of formal federal deportation processes.
State and Local Repatriation Programs: Direct Action and Federal Complicity
While many Mexicans departed on their own, state and local repatriation programs offered assistance or exerted pressure on others. By the early 1930s, local governments began implementing programs designed to remove Mexicans from public relief rolls. The Los Angeles repatriation effort is the most widely recognized, but similar initiatives were implemented across various states and localities.
In certain instances, the INS provided support to local repatriation programs. However, the agency primarily initiated federal removal proceedings in a relatively small number of cases. In Los Angeles County, for instance, INS agents conducted raids and held deportation hearings. High-profile raids in 1931 resulted in the arrest of 389 deportable aliens, 269 of whom were of Mexican origin.
Yet, the threat of heightened federal deportations emanating from these raids likely expedited the departure of thousands more Mexicans. In the aftermath of these raids, Los Angeles County organized and financed trains to transport thousands of Mexicans to the Mexican border.
For contemporary researchers, it is crucial to recognize that only removals executed by the INS (such as the 389 cases mentioned) and a limited number of other investigative cases would have generated agency records. The vast majority of individuals who departed on Los Angeles County-sponsored trains are unlikely to have INS deportation records.
Similarly, in 1933, the INS reported that the State of Michigan “sent” 1,500 Mexicans to the border, accompanied by an Immigration Service escort. Given that these removals were conducted under a state-sponsored program, INS deportation files for these individuals are also improbable.
Exaggerated Reporting and the Misconception of a Single Program
During the Depression, the INS did escalate its efforts to deport undocumented immigrants. While not explicitly targeting Mexicans, these efforts disproportionately affected them. For example, in 1930, Mexicans constituted over half of all deportations. The INS actively sought publicity for its federal deportation campaign in the early 1930s, receiving considerable media attention.
Press coverage of INS deportation efforts, both positive and negative, occurred concurrently with reporting on local repatriation programs. Consequently, contemporary accounts often blurred the lines between federal deportations, local program removals, and the numerous Mexicans who returned to Mexico independently. This resulted in newspapers of the time frequently overstating deportation numbers.
For instance, in 1931, The Salt Lake Desert News quoted immigration officials claiming that 70,000 Mexicans in Southern California had “been deported to their native country.” However, INS statistics reveal that in 1930, the agency deported a total of 18,142 aliens, with 8,335 being Mexican. Inflated reports like this have contributed to the misconception of Mexican repatriation in the 1930s as a singular, massive program, rather than a confluence of various factors.
In total, during the peak repatriation years (1929-1935), the INS formally removed approximately 82,000 Mexicans. These removals encompassed both deportation and voluntary departure proceedings (formal voluntary departure allowed deportable aliens to leave at their own expense, saving government costs and potentially enabling future legal re-entry). Therefore, depending on the estimation used, INS removals accounted for roughly 8 to 20% of the total Mexican departures during the initial six years of the Depression. This explains why most researchers searching for “INS repatriation records” from the Great Depression are unlikely to find them.
Conclusion: Understanding the Nuances of Mexican Repatriation
In conclusion, the narrative of Mexican Repatriation during the Great Depression is complex and multifaceted. While the INS played a role in deportations, the majority of Mexicans who returned to Mexico did so through voluntary departures, often influenced by economic hardship and the threat of deportation, or via state and local repatriation programs. The search for federal records related to Mexican Repatriation should be approached with an understanding of these nuances, recognizing that formal INS documentation represents only a fraction of the overall repatriation phenomenon.
