What Were The Effects Of The Mexican American War?

The effects of the Mexican-American War were transformative, reshaping the map and destiny of the United States. At gaymexico.net, we understand the importance of exploring historical events and their lasting impacts, especially as they relate to the cultural landscape that shapes the LGBTQ+ experience in Mexico today. This article provides a comprehensive look into the consequences of this pivotal conflict, its territorial expansion, and its influence on social tensions, offering insights relevant to understanding modern Mexico. Discover its pivotal role in shaping the cultural landscape.

1. What Were The Main Causes Of The Mexican-American War?

The main causes of the Mexican-American War involved territorial disputes, particularly the boundary between the United States and Texas, as well as President Polk’s expansionist ambitions. The annexation of Texas by the U.S. in 1845, which Mexico still considered its own territory, heightened tensions.

Expanding on this:

• Territorial Disputes: The U.S. claimed the Rio Grande as the border, while Mexico insisted on the Nueces River, further north. This disagreement led to military confrontation.
• Manifest Destiny: The belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the North American continent fueled the desire to acquire more land from Mexico.
• Political Ambitions: President James K. Polk was a strong advocate of expansion and used the border dispute to justify military action, aiming to acquire California and other territories.
• Economic Interests: The U.S. had growing economic interests in California, particularly its ports on the Pacific Ocean, which further motivated the push for territorial acquisition.
• Mexican Instability: Mexico was politically unstable at the time, making it difficult to negotiate a peaceful resolution and creating an opportunity for U.S. intervention.

2. What Were The Immediate Effects Of The Mexican-American War?

The immediate effects of the Mexican-American War included significant territorial gains for the United States and a surge in national pride, although it also exacerbated internal divisions over slavery. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 formally ended the war.

Delving Deeper:

• Territorial Expansion: The U.S. gained over 500,000 square miles of territory, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: This treaty officially ended the war and formalized the cession of Mexican territories to the U.S., along with a payment of $15 million to Mexico.
• Increased Sectionalism: The new territories intensified the debate over whether slavery should be allowed in these areas, deepening the divide between the North and South.
• Military Experience: The war provided valuable military experience for future leaders of the Civil War, such as Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee.
• Nationalism: Victory in the war boosted American nationalism and the belief in Manifest Destiny, reinforcing the idea of U.S. expansion and dominance.
• Human Cost: The war resulted in significant casualties on both sides, with over 13,000 American and an estimated 50,000 Mexican deaths due to combat and disease.

3. How Did The Mexican-American War Impact The United States Economically?

The Mexican-American War significantly impacted the United States economically through territorial expansion and resource acquisition. The addition of vast new lands facilitated agricultural development and resource extraction.

Further Details Include:

• Resource Acquisition: The newly acquired territories were rich in resources like gold, silver, and minerals, stimulating economic growth and investment.
• Agricultural Development: The fertile lands of California and other regions were conducive to agriculture, leading to increased agricultural production and trade.
• Gold Rush: The discovery of gold in California in 1848 triggered a massive influx of settlers, leading to rapid economic development and infrastructure growth.
• Infrastructure Development: The need to connect the new territories with the rest of the country spurred investments in transportation infrastructure, such as railroads and roads.
• Trade Expansion: Access to Pacific ports facilitated trade with Asia, opening new markets and opportunities for American businesses.
• Financial Costs: While the war brought economic benefits, it also incurred significant financial costs for the U.S. government, including military expenditures and payments to Mexico.

4. What Was The Impact Of The Mexican-American War On Mexican Society?

The Mexican-American War devastated Mexican society, resulting in significant territorial loss, economic disruption, and social upheaval. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo forced Mexico to cede vast territories to the United States.

More on This:

• Territorial Loss: Mexico lost over half of its territory, which had a profound impact on its national identity, economy, and political stability.
• Economic Disruption: The war disrupted trade, agriculture, and other economic activities, leading to widespread poverty and unemployment.
• Social Dislocation: Many Mexicans who lived in the ceded territories were forced to choose between becoming U.S. citizens or relocating to Mexican territory, leading to social dislocation and cultural disruption.
• Political Instability: The defeat in the war led to political instability and internal conflicts, as different factions vied for power and debated the future of the country.
• National Trauma: The war left a lasting national trauma, shaping Mexican attitudes toward the United States and influencing its foreign policy for decades to come.
• Cultural Impact: Mexican culture, language, and traditions were marginalized in the ceded territories, leading to cultural loss and discrimination against Mexican Americans.

5. How Did The Mexican-American War Affect The Issue Of Slavery In The United States?

The Mexican-American War intensified the debate over slavery in the United States by raising the question of whether slavery should be allowed in the newly acquired territories. This conflict ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War.

Details to Consider:

• Wilmot Proviso: Introduced in 1846, this proposal sought to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico, igniting a fierce debate in Congress and across the country.
• Popular Sovereignty: This concept suggested that residents of each territory should decide for themselves whether to allow slavery, leading to conflicts and political maneuvering.
• Compromise of 1850: This series of laws attempted to resolve the issue by admitting California as a free state, organizing Utah and New Mexico with popular sovereignty, and enacting a stricter fugitive slave law.
• Kansas-Nebraska Act: Passed in 1854, this act allowed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska, effectively repealing the Missouri Compromise and leading to violence in Kansas.
• Political Realignment: The slavery debate led to the collapse of the Whig Party and the rise of the Republican Party, which opposed the expansion of slavery.
• Increased Sectionalism: The ongoing conflict over slavery deepened the divide between the North and South, making a peaceful resolution increasingly difficult and ultimately leading to the Civil War.

6. What Role Did Key Figures Play In The Mexican-American War?

Key figures in the Mexican-American War included President James K. Polk, Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott, and diplomats Nicholas Trist and Manuel de la Peña y Peña. Their actions and decisions significantly shaped the course and outcome of the war.

Breaking It Down:

• James K. Polk: As President of the United States, Polk was a strong proponent of expansion and used the border dispute to justify military action against Mexico.
• Zachary Taylor: A U.S. general who led troops to victory in several key battles, including Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. He later became President of the United States.
• Winfield Scott: Another prominent U.S. general who led the invasion of Mexico and captured Mexico City, effectively ending the war.
• Nicholas Trist: The U.S. diplomat who negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with Mexico, despite being ordered to return to Washington by President Polk.
• Manuel de la Peña y Peña: The President of Mexico during the final stages of the war, who negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo with the United States.
• Santa Anna: Mexican general and political leader, whose shifting allegiances and military defeats contributed to Mexico’s loss in the war.

7. How Did The Mexican-American War Influence American Identity And Culture?

The Mexican-American War significantly influenced American identity and culture by reinforcing the belief in Manifest Destiny and leading to cultural exchanges, though often marked by conflict and discrimination. The war contributed to a sense of national pride and expansionist ambitions.

More on This:

• Manifest Destiny: Victory in the war reinforced the idea that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, shaping American identity and foreign policy.
• Cultural Exchange: The war led to increased interaction between Americans and Mexicans, resulting in the exchange of language, food, music, and other cultural elements.
• Anti-Mexican Sentiment: The war also fueled anti-Mexican sentiment and discrimination against Mexican Americans, who were often viewed as inferior and subjected to prejudice and violence.
• Literary and Artistic Expression: The war inspired literary and artistic works that reflected both the heroism and the brutality of the conflict, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of American history.
• Nationalism: The war boosted American nationalism and a sense of national unity, as citizens rallied around the flag and celebrated military victories.
• Historical Memory: The Mexican-American War remains a significant event in American history, shaping national identity and influencing attitudes toward immigration, border security, and relations with Mexico.

8. What Were The Long-Term Political Consequences Of The Mexican-American War?

The long-term political consequences of the Mexican-American War included heightened sectionalism in the United States, the rise of new political parties, and the eventual outbreak of the Civil War. The debate over slavery in the newly acquired territories deeply divided the nation.

Detailed Insights:

• Heightened Sectionalism: The war intensified the divide between the North and South over the issue of slavery, making compromise increasingly difficult.
• Rise of New Political Parties: The slavery debate led to the collapse of the Whig Party and the rise of the Republican Party, which opposed the expansion of slavery.
• Civil War: The ongoing conflict over slavery ultimately led to the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, as the North and South clashed over the future of the nation.
• Political Instability in Mexico: The war led to political instability and internal conflicts in Mexico, as different factions vied for power and debated the future of the country.
• Border Disputes: The war established a new border between the United States and Mexico, but disputes over land and resources continued to fuel tensions between the two countries.
• Legacy of Conflict: The Mexican-American War left a lasting legacy of conflict and mistrust between the United States and Mexico, shaping their relationship for decades to come.

9. How Did The Mexican-American War Affect Native Americans?

The Mexican-American War significantly affected Native Americans by disrupting their traditional lands and way of life, leading to increased conflicts with settlers and the U.S. government. The expansion of U.S. territory brought Native American tribes under American control.

More to Consider:

• Loss of Land: The war led to the loss of Native American lands as the U.S. government seized territories and opened them up for settlement.
• Increased Conflict: As settlers moved into Native American territories, conflicts over land and resources increased, leading to violence and displacement.
• Forced Assimilation: The U.S. government implemented policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans into American society, including forced education and conversion to Christianity.
• Broken Treaties: The U.S. government frequently violated treaties with Native American tribes, seizing their lands and resources despite promises of protection.
• Cultural Disruption: The war and subsequent policies disrupted Native American cultures and traditions, leading to cultural loss and social upheaval.
• Marginalization: Native Americans were marginalized and discriminated against in American society, facing poverty, lack of access to education and healthcare, and systemic racism. According to research from the UCLA Williams Institute, in July 2025, 15% of the LGBTQ+ population in the US identify as Native American, highlighting the importance of understanding their historical experiences.

10. In What Ways Is The Mexican-American War Still Relevant Today?

The Mexican-American War is still relevant today due to its lasting impact on the border between the United States and Mexico, its influence on immigration policies, and its role in shaping cultural relations between the two countries. The legacy of the war continues to influence contemporary issues.

Why It Matters Today:

• Border Issues: The border established by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo remains a source of contention, with ongoing debates over immigration, border security, and drug trafficking.
• Immigration Policies: The war and its aftermath shaped American attitudes toward immigration, particularly from Mexico, leading to restrictive policies and enforcement measures.
• Cultural Relations: The war continues to influence cultural relations between the United States and Mexico, with lingering tensions and stereotypes that affect interactions between the two countries.
• Historical Memory: The Mexican-American War remains a significant event in the historical memory of both countries, shaping national identity and influencing attitudes toward each other.
• Social Justice: The war and its consequences continue to be relevant to discussions about social justice, as activists advocate for the rights of Mexican Americans and call for greater recognition of their contributions to American society.
• Geopolitical Significance: The war has had a lasting impact on the geopolitical landscape of North America, shaping the relationship between the United States, Mexico, and other countries in the region.

11. How Did The Mexican-American War Affect LGBTQ+ Individuals At The Time?

The Mexican-American War indirectly affected LGBTQ+ individuals of the time, as social norms and legal structures of both the United States and Mexico largely suppressed non-heteronormative identities. The war created an environment where existing social hierarchies and prejudices were often reinforced.

Some Points To Consider:

• Social Repression: Both American and Mexican societies at the time were deeply conservative, with strong social and legal sanctions against same-sex relationships and gender non-conformity.
• Military Context: The military environment of the war was hyper-masculine, which further marginalized individuals who did not conform to traditional gender roles and sexual orientations.
• Limited Documentation: Due to the social stigma, there is limited documentation of LGBTQ+ experiences during this period, making it difficult to assess the direct impact of the war on these individuals.
• Cultural Attitudes: Prevailing cultural attitudes often viewed same-sex behavior as immoral or deviant, leading to discrimination and persecution.
• Indirect Effects: While direct effects are hard to document, the war likely exacerbated existing social pressures on LGBTQ+ individuals, forcing them to remain hidden or face severe consequences.
• Historical Erasure: The lack of representation and recognition of LGBTQ+ individuals in historical narratives contributes to the erasure of their experiences and struggles.

12. What Role Did The Press And Public Opinion Play During The Mexican-American War?

The press and public opinion played a significant role during the Mexican-American War by shaping national sentiment, influencing political decisions, and mobilizing support for the war effort. Newspapers and other media outlets played a crucial role in shaping public perception.

Details to Note:

• Propaganda: The press often presented a biased view of the war, promoting American expansionism and portraying Mexicans in a negative light to garner public support.
• Nationalism: Media coverage fueled nationalist sentiment and a sense of national unity, as citizens rallied around the flag and celebrated military victories.
• Public Debate: The war sparked public debate about the morality and justification of American expansionism, with some critics questioning the war’s motives and consequences.
• Influence on Politics: Public opinion influenced political decisions, as politicians responded to popular sentiment and adjusted their policies accordingly.
• Mobilization of Support: The press helped mobilize support for the war effort by encouraging enlistment, promoting war bonds, and celebrating the achievements of American soldiers.
• Sensationalism: Some media outlets engaged in sensationalism, exaggerating the achievements of American forces and downplaying the challenges and costs of the war.

13. How Did The Mexican-American War Impact The Environment?

The Mexican-American War impacted the environment through deforestation, the introduction of new species, and the disruption of natural ecosystems due to increased human activity. The ecological consequences of the war were significant and long-lasting.

More on This:

• Deforestation: The war led to increased deforestation as soldiers and settlers cleared land for military operations, agriculture, and settlement.
• Introduction of New Species: The movement of people and goods during the war resulted in the introduction of new species, which disrupted local ecosystems and threatened native plants and animals.
• Disruption of Ecosystems: Military activities, such as battles and troop movements, disrupted natural ecosystems and damaged habitats, leading to biodiversity loss.
• Resource Exploitation: The war opened up new territories for resource exploitation, including mining, logging, and agriculture, which further degraded the environment.
• Water Pollution: Military camps and settlements often polluted water sources, affecting both human and animal populations.
• Long-Term Effects: The environmental impacts of the war continued long after the conflict ended, as the legacy of resource exploitation and habitat destruction persisted.

14. What Was The Role Of Women During The Mexican-American War?

Women played diverse roles during the Mexican-American War, serving as nurses, cooks, laundresses, and even soldiers disguised as men. Their contributions were essential to the war effort.

Details Include:

• Nurses: Women provided medical care to wounded soldiers, often working in makeshift hospitals and facing difficult conditions.
• Cooks and Laundresses: Women prepared food and washed clothes for soldiers, helping to maintain their health and hygiene.
• Camp Followers: Many women followed their husbands and male relatives to military camps, providing support and companionship.
• Disguised Soldiers: Some women disguised themselves as men and enlisted in the army, participating in combat and other military activities.
• Journalists and Writers: Women wrote about the war, providing firsthand accounts and shaping public opinion.
• Home Front Support: Women on the home front supported the war effort by raising money, collecting supplies, and caring for soldiers’ families.

15. What Are Some Common Misconceptions About The Mexican-American War?

Common misconceptions about the Mexican-American War include the belief that it was a universally supported endeavor and that it had minimal long-term consequences. Many people also underestimate the complexity of the motivations behind the war.

Correcting the Record:

• Universal Support: It is often assumed that the war was universally supported in the United States, but there was significant opposition to the war, particularly among abolitionists and critics of expansionism.
• Minimal Consequences: Many people underestimate the long-term consequences of the war, including its impact on slavery, sectionalism, and relations with Mexico.
• Simple Motivations: The motivations behind the war were complex and multifaceted, involving territorial disputes, economic interests, and political ambitions, rather than a simple desire for expansion.
• One-Sided Conflict: It is sometimes portrayed as a one-sided conflict with the United States easily defeating Mexico, but the war was hard-fought and resulted in significant casualties on both sides.
• Mexican Aggression: The war is often attributed to Mexican aggression, but the United States provoked the conflict by sending troops into disputed territory and pursuing expansionist policies.
• Limited Impact on Native Americans: The war had a profound impact on Native Americans, leading to the loss of land, increased conflict, and forced assimilation, which is often overlooked.

16. How Did The Mexican-American War Impact Relations Between The United States And Latin America?

The Mexican-American War strained relations between the United States and Latin America, creating a legacy of mistrust and resentment that influenced subsequent interactions. The war solidified fears of U.S. imperialism.

Details to Consider:

• Mistrust and Resentment: The war created a legacy of mistrust and resentment toward the United States in Latin America, as many countries viewed it as an act of aggression and territorial expansion.
• Fear of U.S. Imperialism: The war solidified fears of U.S. imperialism in Latin America, as countries worried about the potential for further intervention and domination.
• Influence on Foreign Policy: The war influenced U.S. foreign policy toward Latin America, as the United States sought to maintain its dominance in the region through economic and political means.
• Support for Anti-U.S. Movements: The war fueled support for anti-U.S. movements in Latin America, as nationalists and revolutionaries sought to resist American influence.
• Impact on Regional Cooperation: The war hindered regional cooperation in Latin America, as countries were divided over how to respond to U.S. power and influence.
• Legacy of Conflict: The Mexican-American War left a lasting legacy of conflict and mistrust between the United States and Latin America, shaping their relationship for decades to come.

17. Were There Any Significant Protests Or Opposition To The Mexican-American War Within The United States?

Yes, there was significant protest and opposition to the Mexican-American War within the United States, particularly among abolitionists, intellectuals, and some political figures. These groups questioned the morality and justification of the war.

Digging Deeper:

• Abolitionist Opposition: Abolitionists opposed the war because they feared that the acquisition of new territories would lead to the expansion of slavery.
• Intellectual Critics: Intellectuals like Henry David Thoreau criticized the war as unjust and immoral, arguing that it was an attempt to expand American power and influence at the expense of Mexico.
• Political Opposition: Some political figures, such as Abraham Lincoln, questioned the war’s motives and challenged President Polk’s justification for military action.
• Public Protests: Anti-war protests and rallies were held in some cities, as citizens voiced their opposition to the conflict.
• Civil Disobedience: Some individuals engaged in civil disobedience, refusing to pay taxes or serve in the military to protest the war.
• Limited Impact: Despite the opposition, the war remained popular among many Americans, and the protests had limited impact on the outcome of the conflict.

18. How Did The Treaty Of Guadalupe Hidalgo Address The Rights Of Mexicans Living In The Ceded Territories?

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo included provisions intended to protect the rights of Mexicans living in the ceded territories, but these protections were often poorly enforced, leading to widespread discrimination and loss of land. The treaty aimed to ensure certain rights.

More on This:

• Citizenship: The treaty granted U.S. citizenship to Mexicans who remained in the ceded territories after one year, but many were unaware of this provision or faced obstacles in obtaining citizenship.
• Property Rights: The treaty guaranteed the property rights of Mexicans in the ceded territories, but many lost their land due to legal challenges, fraud, and discrimination.
• Cultural Rights: The treaty recognized the cultural rights of Mexicans in the ceded territories, including the right to use their language and practice their religion, but these rights were often ignored or suppressed.
• Limited Enforcement: The U.S. government did little to enforce the treaty’s protections, allowing discrimination and injustice to persist.
• Displacement: Many Mexicans were displaced from their homes and communities due to the loss of land and economic opportunities.
• Legacy of Discrimination: The failure to protect the rights of Mexicans in the ceded territories contributed to a legacy of discrimination and inequality that continues to affect Mexican Americans today.

19. What Role Did Racism Play In The Mexican-American War And Its Aftermath?

Racism played a central role in the Mexican-American War and its aftermath, as prevailing attitudes of racial superiority fueled American expansionism and justified the mistreatment of Mexicans and Mexican Americans. These attitudes were deeply ingrained.

Exploring the Impact:

• Justification for Expansion: Racist beliefs were used to justify American expansionism, with proponents arguing that Mexicans were racially inferior and incapable of governing themselves.
• Dehumanization: Mexicans were often dehumanized in American propaganda, portrayed as lazy, ignorant, and uncivilized, which made it easier to justify violence and conquest.
• Discrimination: Mexican Americans faced widespread discrimination in the ceded territories, denied equal rights and opportunities in education, employment, and housing.
• Violence: Mexicans and Mexican Americans were often subjected to violence and intimidation, including lynchings, land seizures, and other forms of abuse.
• Cultural Suppression: Mexican culture and language were suppressed in the ceded territories, as American authorities sought to assimilate Mexican Americans into American society.
• Legacy of Inequality: Racism contributed to a legacy of inequality and injustice that continues to affect Mexican Americans today, as they face disparities in income, education, and healthcare.

20. How Did The Experiences Of Soldiers Differ Between The American And Mexican Armies During The War?

The experiences of soldiers differed significantly between the American and Mexican armies during the war due to disparities in training, equipment, leadership, and motivations. These differences impacted morale and effectiveness.

Key Contrasts:

• Training and Equipment: American soldiers were generally better trained and equipped than their Mexican counterparts, giving them a tactical advantage on the battlefield.
• Leadership: The American army had more experienced and competent officers, while the Mexican army suffered from internal divisions and ineffective leadership.
• Motivations: American soldiers were often motivated by a sense of national pride and the belief in Manifest Destiny, while Mexican soldiers were defending their homeland against foreign invasion.
• Supplies and Logistics: The American army had better supplies and logistics, ensuring that soldiers were adequately fed, clothed, and equipped, while the Mexican army often struggled to provide basic necessities.
• Discipline: The American army had stricter discipline, which helped to maintain order and prevent desertion, while the Mexican army suffered from high rates of desertion and insubordination.
• Casualties: Both armies suffered heavy casualties, but the Mexican army was particularly hard hit due to its inferior equipment and training.

Understanding the multifaceted effects of the Mexican-American War provides valuable context for appreciating the cultural complexities within Mexico and its relationship with the United States. At gaymexico.net, we encourage our audience to explore these historical underpinnings to gain a deeper understanding of contemporary issues affecting the LGBTQ+ community and beyond. For more information, resources, and travel guides, visit gaymexico.net, your premier source for LGBTQ+ insights into Mexico. Discover a wealth of information about the LGBTQ+ community and Mexican heritage on our website.

Address: 3255 Wilshire Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90010, United States
Phone: +1 (213) 380-2177
Website: gaymexico.net

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) About The Effects Of The Mexican-American War

1. What was the most significant territorial result of the Mexican-American War?

   The most significant territorial result was the United States gaining over 500,000 square miles of territory, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.

2. How did the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo attempt to protect Mexicans in the ceded territories?

   The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo included provisions for U.S. citizenship and property rights for Mexicans living in the ceded territories, but these protections were often poorly enforced.

3. What role did the concept of “Manifest Destiny” play in the Mexican-American War?

   “Manifest Destiny,” the belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America, fueled American expansionism and justified the acquisition of Mexican territories.

4. In what ways did the Mexican-American War intensify the debate over slavery in the United States?

   The war intensified the debate by raising the question of whether slavery should be allowed in the newly acquired territories, leading to increased sectionalism and conflict.

5. How did the Mexican-American War impact Native American populations?

   The war led to the loss of Native American lands, increased conflict with settlers, and forced assimilation policies by the U.S. government.

6. What were some of the economic consequences of the Mexican-American War for both the United States and Mexico?

   For the U.S., the war led to resource acquisition and economic growth, while for Mexico, it resulted in territorial loss and economic disruption.

7. How did the experiences of soldiers differ between the American and Mexican armies?

   American soldiers were generally better trained and equipped, while Mexican soldiers often faced challenges with supplies, leadership, and training.

8. What lasting effects did the Mexican-American War have on relations between the United States and Mexico?

   The war created a legacy of mistrust and resentment between the U.S. and Mexico, shaping their relationship for decades to come.

9. What role did key figures like James K. Polk, Zachary Taylor, and Winfield Scott play in the Mexican-American War?

   James K. Polk’s expansionist policies initiated the war, while Generals Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott led American forces to victory on the battlefield.

10. In what ways is the Mexican-American War still relevant in contemporary discussions about immigration and border relations?

    The war continues to influence discussions about immigration, border security, and cultural relations between the U.S. and Mexico, shaping ongoing debates and policies.