Popular portrayals of the pre-Columbian peoples of Central Mexico often fixate on sensationalist aspects: ritualistic human sacrifice and a violent end at the hands of Spanish conquistadors. However, historian Camilla Townsend, a NEH Public Scholar, argues that these depictions are a gross misrepresentation. “The Aztecs,” she states, “would never recognize themselves” in the brutal image propagated by modern media. In truth, their society, properly known as Mexica, was a complex civilization of skilled artisans, sophisticated thinkers, and record keepers with a vibrant and nuanced culture.
Townsend’s book, Fifth Sun: A New History of the Aztecs, challenges these one-dimensional narratives by drawing directly from Mexica sources. It reveals a rich tapestry of their world and the lives of individuals within it, including iconic figures like La Malinche. Through these primary accounts, Townsend emphasizes, “we can hear the Mexica. They sing, laugh, and yell. It turns out that the world they lived in cannot be characterized as naturally morbid or vicious, even though certain moments were.”
To delve deeper into this crucial project of historical re-evaluation, we spoke with Camilla Townsend.
The Mexica cosmology, as reflected in the title of your book Fifth Sun, posits a cyclical history of creation and destruction. Could you elaborate on the true origins of the Mexica people themselves?
It’s essential to understand that “Aztec” is an umbrella term. The people we are discussing specifically called themselves Mexica (pronounced Me-SHEE-ka). Their origin story traces back to Aztlán, a mythical homeland often placed in what is now the American Southwest. Linguistically, their language, Nahuatl, shares roots with languages spoken by groups like the Hopi and Utes, supporting this northern origin. The Mexica migration was a gradual process spanning roughly two centuries. Guided by their deities, particularly Huitzilopochtli, they journeyed south, eventually arriving in the Valley of Mexico. There, they found a lake and, on a small island within it, established their capital, Tenochtitlan. This city would become the heart of their powerful empire.
Tenochtitlan is often synonymous with dramatic, and often sensationalized, accounts of human sacrifice. While this practice existed, how does focusing solely on it obscure a more comprehensive understanding of Tenochtitlan and Mexica society? What aspects deserve greater attention?
It’s true, popular culture, like the movie Apocalypto, frequently sensationalizes human sacrifice in depictions of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, often conflating different cultures and time periods. While ritual sacrifice was indeed part of Mexica religious practice, particularly during the height of their imperial power and promoted by a specific class of priests, it’s crucial to contextualize it. Focusing solely on this aspect paints a distorted picture of daily life in Tenochtitlan. The vast majority of Mexica people were not engaged in sacrificial rituals. Instead, they were actively involved in creation – as incredibly skilled artisans, craftspeople, farmers, traders, and builders. Tenochtitlan was a bustling urban center, renowned for its impressive architecture, intricate canal system, vibrant markets, and flourishing arts. To truly understand Mexica society, we must look beyond the temple ceremonies to the everyday lives of its people, their ingenuity, and their cultural achievements. They were master builders, creating chinampas or “floating gardens” to expand agricultural production, and sophisticated astronomers, developing complex calendars. Tenochtitlan was a testament to Mexica innovation and societal organization, far beyond just a site of religious rituals.
The arrival of Spanish conquistadors marked a turning point, leading to the fall of Tenochtitlan. What factors contributed to the Spanish conquest, and how did the Mexica respond to this invasion?
The Spanish conquest, led by figures like Hernán Cortés, was a brutal and transformative event. The Mexica mounted a formidable and sustained defense of Tenochtitlan. They were skilled warriors and strategists, and they fiercely resisted the Spanish for months. However, several factors ultimately contributed to the Spanish victory. Technological disparities played a significant role. European societies, with their longer history of sedentary agriculture and Old World interactions, possessed advanced technologies that were unknown in Mesoamerica. This included ships, compasses, printing presses, metal armor, firearms (cannons and gunpowder), and even seemingly mundane technologies like flour mills and barrel making. These advantages, accumulated over millennia of different societal development, gave the conquistadors a significant military edge despite the Mexica bravery and strategic prowess. Beyond technology, disease was a devastating factor. The introduction of European diseases, like smallpox, to which the Mexica had no immunity, decimated their population, weakening their ability to resist. Internal political divisions within the Mexica empire also played a role, with some groups allying with the Spanish against Mexica rule. Despite these overwhelming challenges, the Mexica resistance was fierce and prolonged, demonstrating their determination to defend their city and way of life.
In the aftermath of the conquest, the Mexica faced immense cultural disruption and the threat of historical erasure. How did they navigate this period, and did they selectively adopt aspects of Spanish culture while preserving their own identity?
The Mexica were acutely aware of the danger of cultural obliteration following the Spanish conquest. Their scholars and scribes undertook a crucial effort to document their history, traditions, and knowledge in the face of this threat. They were determined to ensure that their civilization and their story would not vanish. These invaluable records, written in Nahuatl, were not widely recognized or studied by outsiders for centuries, remaining largely within indigenous communities. Today, this is changing, and these indigenous sources are finally receiving the scholarly attention they deserve. The Mexica response to Spanish culture was complex and nuanced. They did reject aspects of the imposed colonial system, striving to maintain their cultural identity and traditions. However, they also demonstrated pragmatism and adaptability, selectively adopting elements of Spanish culture that they found useful or appealing. For example, as Townsend notes, they appreciated candles as superior to traditional torches and were fascinated by lockable boxes for personal belongings. This selective adoption highlights their resilience and their agency in navigating the post-conquest world, neither fully assimilating nor entirely rejecting the new cultural landscape.
Your work is unique in its reliance on indigenous sources. Could you elaborate on the types of sources you utilized for Fifth Sun and why they have been historically overlooked in favor of Spanish accounts and archaeological remains?
My research deliberately prioritized Mexica voices. I chose to move away from the traditional reliance on Spanish conquistador accounts, which are inherently biased and often portray the Mexica through a European lens, and from silent archaeological evidence, which, while valuable, requires interpretation. Instead, I focused on the extensive body of writings produced by the Mexica themselves after the conquest. These sources have been neglected primarily because they are written in Nahuatl, the Mexica language. The unfortunate reality is that the study of indigenous languages, particularly Nahuatl, has been historically marginalized within academia. Despite the fact that Nahuatl is still spoken by over a million people in Mexico today, many of whom live in rural communities facing poverty and limited access to resources for research and publication, the linguistic barrier has persisted. Furthermore, educational systems in Mexico have historically prioritized Spanish literacy over Nahuatl literacy for Nahuatl-speaking children. However, there is a growing and vibrant movement of Nahuatl language revitalization, and I am optimistic that future generations of Nahua scholars will build upon this work and offer even deeper insights.
Each chapter of Fifth Sun begins with a vivid vignette drawn from these indigenous sources. What is the purpose of these narrative openings, and do you have a particular vignette that resonates with you most strongly?
These vignettes are central to my aim of humanizing the Mexica and making their experiences relatable to contemporary readers. They are designed to foster empathy and connection. It’s crucial to emphasize that these are not fictional embellishments. Each vignette is meticulously grounded in historical research and details gleaned from the indigenous sources. They are imaginative reconstructions based on factual evidence, intended to bring the past to life. Choosing a favorite is difficult, but the vignette depicting Tecuichpotzin, Moctezuma’s daughter, during a smallpox epidemic, is particularly poignant. Her story of facing death from a devastating new disease resonates powerfully with our current experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic, highlighting the shared human vulnerabilities across time.
You purposefully incorporate Nahuatl words throughout Fifth Sun. What is the significance of engaging readers with the Mexica language itself?
The inclusion of Nahuatl words was a deliberate choice, though one that involved careful consideration and discussion. There’s a potential risk that foreign words can alienate some readers. However, excluding them entirely would mean sacrificing the opportunity for readers to understand the Mexica world on its own terms, through their own linguistic categories and concepts. For instance, the Nahuatl term “altepetl,” which literally translates to “water-mountain,” encapsulates the Mexica concept of community – encompassing everything from a small village to a larger city-state. This is because access to water and a defensible high point were essential for any settlement. Using Nahuatl terms provides a richer and more accurate understanding of Mexica concepts and worldview that is difficult to convey through translation alone.
Fifth Sun concludes with a detailed guide to its indigenous sources. How do you see your role as a public scholar in relation to the Mexica people and a wider audience seeking a more accurate understanding of their history?
As a public scholar, I believe in making knowledge accessible and demystifying expertise. While specialized expertise requires dedicated study, it’s vital that the public understands the foundations of that expertise – the kinds of evidence and sources that inform historical interpretations. Providing readers with the tools to explore these sources themselves empowers them to critically evaluate information and form their own informed opinions, especially on complex or contested topics. The annotated guide to indigenous sources in Fifth Sun is intended to do just that – to open a doorway for readers who wish to delve deeper into Mexica history. My hope is that by engaging with these sources, readers will see that the portrayal of the Mexica as “kinder and funnier” is not merely a subjective interpretation but is grounded in tangible evidence from their own historical record.
Finally, now that Fifth Sun is completed, what are you currently working on?
Currently, I am immersed in the personal papers of an indigenous family in Mexico from the late 17th century. One family member initiated a remarkable record book that was maintained across generations. Combined with other documents like wills, baptismal records, and tax documents, these sources offer an unprecedented glimpse into the lives of an ordinary Native American family during the colonial period. As for future projects beyond that, I have many ideas, but I am also mindful of time and the need to be realistic about what I can accomplish. Perhaps ask me again next year!
Camilla Townsend’s research for Fifth Sun: A New History of the Aztecs was supported by a Public Scholars award (FZ-256395-17). Published by Oxford University Press in 2019, the book is available through WorldCat. She is a Distinguished Professor of History at Rutgers University.
The NEH Public Scholars program supports well-researched humanities books for a general audience. For program information or application details, visit the program’s resource page. For inquiries, contact @email.
